Elements of Instruction beyond a good lesson adapt to students’ level of knowledge motivate students to learn manage students’ behavior group students for instruction assess students’ learning Carroll’s Model of School Learning learning is a function of: time spent on learning time needed to learn QAIT Model (Slavin, 1987) Quality of Instruction Appropriate levels of Instruction Incentive Time Quality of Instruction Does lesson make sense to students? Does teacher monitor students’ learning? Appropriate levels of Instruction students have different levels of background knowledge students need different amounts of time to learn new material Incentive characteristics of tasks interesting? characteristics of students curiosity? Positive orientation toward learning? rewards Time scheduled for instruction used to teach Student Grouping Between-class grouping ex. tracking Within-class grouping ex. Reading groups Research on between-class grouping gains for high-track, but not for low-track based on standardized test scores few role models for low-track students teacher may expect less of low-track stigmatizes low-track students may be discriminatory Alternatives to Between-Class Grouping untracking regrouping for reading & math nongraded programs (cross-age) Research on within-class grouping more effective than nongrouping more effective when flexible grouping was used best with no more than 3 groups less necessary with constructivist techniques Mastery Learning all students learn particular skill before moving to the next skill time for each student to learn will differ Forms of mastery learning mastery criterion & corrective instruction Keller plan work at own rate and pass tests based on criterion formative & summative quizzes Research on mastery learning best when combined with cooperative learning if staff time is used, it’s effective teachers have more effective objectives effective with hierarchical skills trade-off between amount covered and how well it’s learned Outcomes-Based Education outcomes are specified time & resources will vary emphasis of mastery of well-defined, well-justified core of knowledge & skills Individualizing Instruction Peer tutoring cross-age same-age Adult tutoring Research on Tutoring increase in achievement of tutors and tutees adult tutoring is $$$, but effective $$$ is justified when early skills are crucial Programmed Instruction self-instructional materials at own levels and rates few achievement benefits shown Informal Remediation & Enrichment teachers modify instruction based on individual needs teachers must not harm whole class to work with one Computer-Based Instruction (CBI) computer as tutor give students practice assess students’ understanding provide additional instruction Types of CBI applications drill & practice tutorial programs instructional games simulation software word processing software More CBI spreadsheets & databases CD-ROM Hypertext & hypermedia videodisc integrated learning systems computer programming Research on CBI small to moderate effects effective when used with instruction rather than replacing it not all students have access teachers may not be prepared Students Placed At Risk environment has not responded adequately to child’s needs Predictive risk factors SES, family structure poor reading, grade repetition poor behavior Educational Programs for Placed At Risk Students compensatory early intervention special education Compensatory programs designed to overcome problems associated with low SES Head Start Follow Through Title I Title I programs designed to supplement local efforts pull-out programs tutoring continuous-progress, etc. best for prevention Research on Title I better than others, not as good as national average greatest for first-graders effective in regular and pull-out classes better when emphasize understanding Early Intervention Programs Prevention rather than remediation pre-K infancy done with reading (e.g., Success for All, Reading Recovery) Review Questions: What are elements of effective instruction beyond a good lesson? How are students grouped to accommodate achievement differences? What is mastery learning? More review questions: What are some ways of individualizing instruction? What educational programs exist for students placed at risk?